Immigration Court: The Ultimate Guide to Removal Proceedings

LEGAL DISCLAIMER: This article provides general, informational content for educational purposes only. It is not a substitute for professional legal advice from a qualified attorney. Always consult with a lawyer for guidance on your specific legal situation.

Imagine receiving a formal letter from the government that you can't quite understand, but you know it’s serious. It says you must appear in a special court, one you've never heard of. This isn't the criminal court you see on TV dramas, with a jury of your peers. This is immigration court. Think of it less like a criminal trial and more like the most important, high-stakes administrative hearing of your life. The person sitting in the judge's chair will not decide if you go to jail, but something just as profound: whether you, or a member of your family, can remain in the United States. It is a place of complex rules and life-altering decisions, where your story, your ties to the community, and your fears for the future are put under a legal microscope. Understanding this unique system is the first, most critical step toward navigating it.

• What it is: The immigration court system is a network of special administrative courts whose sole purpose is to determine if a non-citizen is subject to removal (deportation) from the U.S. and whether they are eligible for any form of protection or relief that would allow them to stay.
• Who runs it: These courts are not part of the independent judicial branch of the U.S. government. They fall under the executive_office_for_immigration_review (EOIR), which is an agency within the U.S. Department of Justice, part of the executive branch.
• The critical trigger: The process begins when you receive a document called a notice_to_appear (NTA). This document officially places you in removal_proceedings and failing to attend your scheduled hearings can result in an automatic order of deportation against you.

The concept of a formal court for immigration matters is a relatively modern invention. For much of U.S. history, deportation decisions were made by immigration inspectors at the border with very limited review. The journey began with scattered laws, like the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which marked the first major federal restriction on a specific group of immigrants. The true foundation of the modern system was laid with the immigration_and_nationality_act (INA) of 1952. The INA consolidated hundreds of prior laws into one comprehensive statute, establishing the legal grounds for both admission and deportation. At this time, the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) was responsible for everything: inspections, enforcement, and adjudication. A seismic shift occurred in the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks. In 2003, the U.S. government undertook a massive reorganization, creating the department_of_homeland_security (DHS). The old INS was dismantled and its functions were split among three new agencies:

• U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (uscis): Handles legal immigration benefits like green cards and citizenship.
• Customs and Border Protection (CBP): Manages the borders.
• Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ice): Handles interior enforcement and acts as the “prosecutor” in immigration court.

Crucially, the immigration courts themselves were kept separate. They were organized under the executive_office_for_immigration_review (EOIR), which remained within the Department of Justice. This created the modern, adversarial system: a DHS attorney from ICE argues for removal, and the respondent (the non-citizen) argues against it, all before an immigration_judge who works for the EOIR. This separation is a constant source of confusion, but it is the defining feature of the system today.

The rules governing immigration court are not found in one single book. They are a complex web of statutes, regulations, and case law.

• The Immigration_and_Nationality_Act (INA): This is the bedrock of U.S. immigration law, codified as Title 8 of the United States Code. The INA defines who is “inadmissible” (cannot enter) and who is “deportable” (can be removed). For example, Section 237 of the INA lists the categories of non-citizens who can be deported, such as those convicted of certain crimes or who have violated the terms of their visa.
• 8 C.F.R. (Code of Federal Regulations): While the INA provides the “what,” the regulations in Title 8, Chapter V of the C.F.R. provide the “how.” These rules, published by the EOIR, detail the procedures for court hearings, filing motions, submitting evidence, and appealing decisions. This is the operational playbook for immigration judges and attorneys.
• The Board of Immigration Appeals (board_of_immigration_appeals): The BIA is an appellate body within the EOIR. Its decisions interpret the INA and the regulations, creating binding precedent for all immigration judges nationwide, unless overturned by a federal court.

Because immigration court decisions can be appealed to the federal Circuit Courts of Appeals, the law is not applied uniformly across the country. The country is divided into 12 regional circuits, and a decision by a circuit court is only binding on the immigration courts within its geographic territory. This creates a “patchwork” of law where the outcome of an identical case could differ based on whether it's heard in California or Texas.

This means a skilled immigration lawyer must be an expert not only in federal immigration law but also in the specific precedents of the circuit court that oversees the location of your hearing.

An immigration case is not a single event, but a series of stages that can stretch over months or, more commonly, years.

The journey begins when a non-citizen comes to the attention of a DHS agency (ICE, CBP, or USCIS). This could be due to an arrest, an asylum application referral, or a denied visa application. The agency then issues a notice_to_appear (NTA) and files it with the immigration court. The NTA is the official charging document. It lists factual allegations (e.g., “You are not a citizen of the United States”) and a charge of removability (e.g., “You are present in the U.S. without being admitted or paroled”).

Your first appearance in court will be a Master Calendar Hearing (MCH). These are brief, preliminary hearings, often with dozens of other people in the courtroom. The purpose is not to decide your case, but to handle administrative matters. During the MCH, the immigration_judge (IJ) will:

• State your name and verify your contact information.
• Ask if you have a lawyer or need time to find one.
• Read the allegations and charges on the NTA.
• Ask you to “plead” to the allegations (admit or deny them) and concede or contest the charge of removability.
• Ask what form of relief or protection from removal you will be seeking.
• Set deadlines for you to file any applications and schedule your Individual Merits Hearing.

This is the “homework” phase. Based on your MCH, you and your lawyer must prepare and file applications for any forms of relief you may be eligible for, such as asylum or cancellation_of_removal. This involves completing detailed forms and compiling extensive supporting evidence, such as personal declarations, witness statements, police reports, medical records, and expert opinions.

The Individual Merits Hearing (IMH), also known as an individual hearing, is the actual trial. Here, you and your attorney will present your case to the IJ. Unlike the MCH, this is a private hearing with only the parties to your case present. The process typically involves:

• Your Testimony: You will be placed under oath and asked to tell your story. Your lawyer will question you first, followed by cross-examination from the DHS trial attorney.
• Witness Testimony: Any witnesses you have will also testify and be cross-examined.
• Evidence Submission: Your attorney will formally submit your application and all supporting documents into evidence.
• Legal Arguments: Both your attorney and the DHS attorney will make legal arguments to the IJ about why you should or should not be granted relief based on the law and the evidence presented.

At the end of the Individual Merits Hearing, the IJ will deliver an oral decision, or, less commonly, issue a written decision later. The IJ can grant your application for relief, which means you can stay in the U.S., or deny it. If your application is denied, the IJ will order you removed from the United States. If you receive a negative decision, you generally have 30 days to file an appeal with the board_of_immigration_appeals (BIA). An appeal to the BIA is primarily based on legal arguments that the IJ made an error of law or fact; it is not a new trial.

Understanding the roles of each person in the courtroom is essential.

• The Respondent: This is the non-citizen in removal proceedings. Unlike in criminal court, you are not called the “defendant.”
• The Immigration Judge (IJ): The decision-maker. It is critical to know that IJs are attorneys employed by the Department of Justice (part of the executive branch). They are not independent federal judges appointed for life. They preside over the hearing, rule on objections, and make the final determination on the case.
• The DHS Trial Attorney: This is the government's lawyer, an attorney from ice's Office of the Principal Legal Advisor (OPLA). Their job is to represent DHS's interests and argue why the respondent should be removed from the U.S.
• The Respondent's Attorney: In immigration court, you have the right to an attorney, but at your own expense. The government will not appoint one for you. Having an experienced immigration lawyer dramatically increases your chances of success. If you represent yourself, you are considered “pro se.”
• The Interpreter: The court provides interpreters for respondents who do not speak English fluently. Their role is to translate everything said by the judge, attorneys, and respondent accurately.
• Witnesses: These can be fact witnesses (e.g., family members who can testify about your character) or expert witnesses (e.g., a psychologist testifying about ptsd or a professor testifying about country conditions).

Receiving a Notice to Appear can be terrifying. Follow this structured approach to protect your rights.

The notice_to_appear is the foundation of the government's case against you. Read it line by line. Check that your name and “A-Number” (your alien registration number) are correct. Pay close attention to the factual allegations and the legal charge(s) of inadmissibility or deportability. Any errors could be important to your defense.

This is the single most important action you can take. Statistics consistently show that respondents with legal representation are far more likely to succeed in their cases. Do not just hire any lawyer; you need an attorney who specializes in removal defense. You can find qualified lawyers through the American Immigration Lawyers Association (AILA) or accredited non-profit organizations.

The EOIR provides an automated case information system. You can check your next hearing date and case status online or by calling 1-800-898-7180. You will need your 9-digit A-Number to access your information. Check this system regularly, as hearing dates can change. Never miss a hearing.

Begin working with your attorney immediately to collect all possible evidence to support your case. This is a long process. Evidence can include:

• Identity and Nationality Documents: Your passport, birth certificate.
• Proof of U.S. Residence: Leases, utility bills, employment records, children's school records.
• Proof of Good Moral Character: Letters of support from community members, employers, religious leaders; proof of tax payments.
• Evidence for Your Specific Relief: For an asylum case, this includes news articles about your home country, medical or psychological reports, and affidavits from witnesses. For cancellation_of_removal, this includes proof of hardship to your U.S. citizen family members.

Your lawyer will guide you on how to respond to the judge's questions at the MCH. Usually, the strategy is to deny the allegations and charges to preserve all your rights, even if some allegations are true. Your lawyer will inform the judge of what relief you intend to seek and will receive the deadlines for filing.

You and your attorney will prepare and submit a detailed application packet before the deadline set by the judge. This is your chance to formally tell your story and present your legal argument for why you should be allowed to remain in the country. This packet is often hundreds of pages long.

Your individual merits hearing is your day in court. Your lawyer will prepare you extensively. This includes practicing your testimony, reviewing the questions the DHS attorney might ask, and understanding the themes of your case. On the day of the hearing, dress professionally, be respectful to the judge, and answer all questions truthfully and directly.

The forms required depend entirely on the type of relief you are seeking.

• Form I-589, Application for Asylum and for Withholding of Removal: This is the universal application for individuals fleeing persecution. It requires a detailed narrative of why you fear returning to your home country and must be supported by extensive evidence. It must be filed within one year of your arrival in the U.S., though there are exceptions to this rule.
• Form EOIR-42B, Application for Cancellation of Removal for Certain Nonpermanent Residents: This is for non-LPRs who can prove they have been in the U.S. for at least 10 years, have been a person of good moral character, have not been convicted of certain offenses, and whose removal would result in “exceptional and extremely unusual hardship” to a U.S. citizen or LPR spouse, parent, or child. This hardship standard is extremely difficult to meet.
• The Notice to Appear (NTA): While not a form you fill out, it is the most critical document to understand. It dictates the entire course of your case. You must bring it to every court hearing.

Even if the government proves you are removable, you can still win your case by showing you are eligible for a form of “relief” from removal. These are the most common avenues:

These are three related but distinct forms of protection for those who fear returning to their home country.

• Asylum: To win asylum, you must prove you have suffered past persecution or have a well-founded fear of future persecution on account of one of five protected grounds: race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership in a particular social group. If granted, you can apply for a green card after one year.
• Withholding of Removal: This has a higher standard of proof (“more likely than not” that you will be persecuted). It is mandatory if you meet the standard, but it provides fewer benefits than asylum (e.g., no path to a green card or family petitions). It is often a fallback for those who are barred from asylum.
• Convention Against Torture (CAT) Protection: This requires proving it is “more likely than not” that you will be tortured by, or with the acquiescence of, the government of your home country. It does not require a connection to one of the five protected grounds.

This relief essentially “cancels” a deportation order. There are two main types:

• For Lawful Permanent Residents (LPRs): Available to green card holders who have been an LPR for at least 5 years, have resided continuously in the U.S. for at least 7 years after being lawfully admitted, and have not been convicted of an “aggravated felony.”
• For Non-Permanent Residents: This is the “10-year law” mentioned previously, with the difficult-to-prove “exceptional and extremely unusual hardship” standard.

In some limited circumstances, a respondent in removal proceedings can apply for a green_card (i.e., adjust their status) before the immigration judge. This is typically possible if they have an approved and current family-based or employment-based visa petition and are otherwise eligible to adjust status.

If you are removable because of a specific issue (like a criminal conviction, fraud, or unlawful presence), you may be eligible to apply for a “waiver.” A waiver is a form of legal forgiveness. For example, a 212(h) waiver can forgive certain criminal grounds of removability if you can show extreme hardship to a qualifying U.S. citizen or LPR relative.

If no other form of relief is available, you can request voluntary_departure. This allows you to leave the U.S. at your own expense by a certain date. While it means you must leave, it is often preferable to a formal deportation order, which carries a bar of at least 10 years on legally returning to the U.S. and more severe future immigration consequences.

The immigration court system is under immense strain.

• The Case Backlog: The single biggest issue is the staggering backlog of cases. As of 2024, there are over 3 million pending cases, meaning many respondents wait five years or more for their final hearing. This prolonged uncertainty affects families, communities, and the ability of the system to function.
• Judicial Independence: A major debate centers on the structure of the court itself. Because IJs are employees of the Department of Justice, critics argue they lack true judicial independence and can be influenced by the policies of the current presidential administration. There is a significant movement to restructure the system as an independent “Article I Court,” similar to the U.S. Tax Court, to ensure impartiality.
• Prosecutorial_Discretion: DHS attorneys have the power to exercise prosecutorial discretion, meaning they can choose to de-prioritize or dismiss low-priority cases to focus resources on more serious ones. The extent to which this tool is used varies dramatically between administrations, creating instability and unpredictability for respondents.

The future of immigration court will be shaped by technology and evolving policy.

• Virtual Hearings: The use of Video Teleconferencing (VTC) for hearings has exploded. While it can increase efficiency, it also raises serious due_process concerns, as it can be difficult for a judge to assess credibility, for attorneys to confer with clients, and for respondents to present evidence effectively through a screen.
• Electronic Filing: The EOIR is moving towards a fully electronic case access and filing system (ECAS). This promises to streamline the submission of documents but also presents challenges for unrepresented individuals or those with limited access to technology.
• Changing Asylum Law: The definition of key asylum terms, especially “particular social group” and “nexus,” is constantly being litigated and reshaped by BIA and circuit court decisions, as well as by new federal regulations. Future administrations will undoubtedly continue to use regulations to try and narrow or expand access to asylum.

• A-Number: The Alien Registration Number, a unique 9-digit identifier assigned to non-citizens.
• Board of Immigration Appeals (BIA): The highest administrative body for interpreting and applying immigration laws. board_of_immigration_appeals.
• Cancellation of Removal: A form of relief that cancels a removal order for certain long-term residents. cancellation_of_removal.
• Department of Homeland Security (DHS): The U.S. executive department responsible for immigration enforcement. department_of_homeland_security.
• Executive Office for Immigration Review (EOIR): The agency within the Department of Justice that administers the immigration courts. executive_office_for_immigration_review.
• Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE): The DHS agency that acts as the prosecutor in immigration court. immigration_and_customs_enforcement.
• Immigration Judge (IJ): The administrative judge who presides over removal proceedings. immigration_judge.
• Individual Merits Hearing (IMH): The final trial in an immigration case where testimony and evidence are presented.
• Master Calendar Hearing (MCH): A preliminary hearing to address administrative matters in a case.
• Notice to Appear (NTA): The official charging document that initiates removal proceedings. notice_to_appear.
• Pro Se: Representing oneself in court without an attorney.
• Removal Proceedings: The formal legal process for determining if a non-citizen must be deported from the U.S. removal_proceedings.
• Respondent: The non-citizen individual in removal proceedings.
• Voluntary Departure: An agreement to leave the U.S. voluntarily to avoid a formal order of removal. voluntary_departure.

• asylum
• deportation
• notice_to_appear
• board_of_immigration_appeals
• cancellation_of_removal
• immigration_and_nationality_act
• department_of_homeland_security